What is the Tignon Law’s heritage impact?

Roots

For those of us whose ancestral stories are written in the curl and coil of our strands, the legacy of the Tignon Law is more than a historical footnote; it is a living testament to the enduring spirit of textured hair. This edict, born in 1786 New Orleans under Spanish colonial rule, sought to dim the vibrant expression of Black and mixed-race women, particularly free women of color, by mandating the covering of their hair with a humble scarf, the “tignon.” The intention was clear ❉ to visibly mark these women as belonging to a subordinate class, thereby curbing their social and economic ascent and diminishing their perceived attractiveness to white men. Yet, what colonial authorities intended as a badge of subservience became, in the hands of these ingenious women, a powerful symbol of defiance, beauty, and cultural continuity. This exploration delves into the deep heritage impact of the Tignon Law, revealing how it irrevocably shaped the narrative of textured hair, Black and mixed-race experiences, and ancestral practices, transforming an act of oppression into an enduring legacy of resilience and self-expression.

Hair Anatomy and Physiology Specific to Textured Hair

The very structure of textured hair, with its unique elliptical follicle shape and varied curl patterns, holds within its coils a heritage stretching back through millennia. Unlike straight hair, which emerges from a round follicle, textured hair’s journey from the scalp is a spiral, creating the distinctive kinks, curls, and waves that define its character. This biological reality is not merely a matter of form; it dictates how moisture travels along the hair shaft, how light reflects, and how styles are held. Historically, African communities understood these intrinsic qualities, developing sophisticated care practices that honored the hair’s natural inclinations.

They recognized that these strands, often dense and voluminous, required specific nourishment and gentle handling to thrive. The Tignon Law, in its attempt to obscure this natural splendor, inadvertently drew attention to the very biology it sought to suppress. It underscored the inherent beauty and distinctiveness of textured hair, forcing a recognition, albeit a perverse one, of its presence even when covered.

Textured Hair Classification Systems and Their Cultural Origins

The language we use to describe textured hair today, with its numerical and alphabetical classifications, often feels clinical, detached from the lived experience and cultural heritage that inform its very existence. Historically, classifications were not merely about curl type; they were intertwined with identity, social status, and communal belonging. In many African societies, a person’s hairstyle could communicate their age, marital status, tribal affiliation, wealth, and even their spiritual role within the community. For instance, the Yoruba people utilized intricate hairstyles to convey social messages, with specific braids indicating marital status or rites of passage (Afriklens, 2024).

The Tignon Law, then, was an attempt to impose a new, oppressive classification system ❉ one that sought to homogenize and devalue Black and mixed-race women by forcing a uniform, veiled appearance. This colonial imposition aimed to erase the rich, diverse visual language of African and Afro-Creole hair, replacing it with a singular, subjugated marker. The irony, of course, is that the women of New Orleans subverted this imposed uniformity, turning the tignon into a new canvas for expressing their unique heritage and status.

The Tignon Law, intended to suppress the visual expression of Black and mixed-race women, inadvertently highlighted the profound connection between textured hair and identity.

The Tignon Law’s influence extended beyond a simple mandate; it subtly contributed to the development of a consciousness around hair as a racial marker within colonial structures. The law specifically targeted “Creole women of color” who, by their elaborate hairstyles and attire, were perceived as blurring social and racial lines, attracting white men and threatening the established order (Gould, cited in VICE, 2018). This reveals how hair, in its natural, adorned state, was seen as a challenge to white supremacy and a symbol of agency. The attempt to strip away this visual autonomy speaks volumes about the power attributed to textured hair and its deep cultural heritage.

The Essential Lexicon of Textured Hair

The language surrounding textured hair is rich with terms that speak to its unique qualities and the care it requires. Many of these terms, whether contemporary or historical, are deeply rooted in ancestral practices and cultural understanding. Before the Tignon Law, the elaborate hairstyles of New Orleans’ free women of color were not merely aesthetic choices; they were statements, drawing on West African traditions of hair adornment that incorporated feathers, jewels, and intricate designs. The very word “tignon” itself, a New Orleans term for headwrap, is a variation of the French word “chignon,” meaning a hair bun or twist, highlighting the colonial influence on the naming conventions even for tools of oppression.

Yet, the defiance embedded in the tignon’s transformation meant that words like “resistance,” “creativity,” and “identity” became intrinsically linked to this enforced covering. The lexicon of textured hair, therefore, is not static; it is a living archive, continuously shaped by historical events, cultural resilience, and the ongoing dialogue between tradition and innovation.

• Gele ❉ An elaborate headwrap worn by Yoruba and Igbo women in Nigeria, often signifying status and celebration.
• Duku ❉ A term for headwraps used by Ghanaian women.
• Doek ❉ An Afrikaans word for headwrap, used by South African and Namibian women.
• Tignon ❉ A specific term for the headwrap mandated by the Tignon Law in 18th-century New Orleans, derived from the French “chignon.”

Hair Growth Cycles and Influencing Factors

Understanding the biology of hair growth, from the anagen (growing) phase to the telogen (resting) phase, has been a quiet wisdom passed down through generations within communities that honor textured hair. While modern science dissects the cellular mechanisms, ancestral practices instinctively understood the factors that influence hair health and growth ❉ nutrition, environment, and gentle handling. The Tignon Law, by forcing women to cover their hair, inadvertently offered a form of protection from environmental stressors like the sun and dust, which, in turn, could have contributed to healthier hair, even if the intention was malicious.

This historical example underscores how even oppressive measures could be subverted to unintended benefits, demonstrating the inherent adaptability and resilience of those whose heritage was under assault. The emphasis on protective styles and nighttime rituals within Black hair care today echoes this historical understanding of safeguarding the hair, ensuring its longevity and vitality, a practice perhaps reinforced, in an ironic twist, by the very law that sought to conceal it.

Ritual

As we step into the realm of ritual, a space where hands meet strands in acts of care and cultural expression, we find the enduring influence of the Tignon Law, not as a stifling decree, but as a curious catalyst for creativity. The echoes of its imposition reverberate through the history of textured hair styling, reminding us that even in constraint, a vibrant spirit of self-definition can bloom. This section delves into how the Tignon Law, originally designed to diminish, instead became a peculiar force in shaping traditional and modern styling heritage, inviting us to consider the ingenious ways ancestral knowledge and communal bonds transformed an act of control into a testament to resilience.

Protective Styling Encyclopedia

Protective styles, from cornrows to braids and twists, possess a lineage that stretches back to the African continent, serving purposes far beyond mere aesthetics. These styles, which tuck away the hair’s delicate ends, have historically shielded strands from environmental damage, reduced manipulation, and aided in length retention. In ancient African societies, braids were not just a hairstyle; they were a form of communication, a marker of identity, and a communal activity, often performed during gatherings that strengthened social bonds. When the Tignon Law mandated the covering of hair, it created a curious paradox.

While the intent was to hide the beauty of textured hair, the necessity of covering it meant that women continued to rely on protective styles that were practical and culturally resonant. The headwrap, or tignon, became a secondary layer of protection, allowing for the continued practice of intricate styles underneath, styles that preserved the hair’s health and integrity. This act of concealment, rather than erasing these practices, subtly reinforced their utility and cultural persistence. The styles hidden beneath the tignon were a private rebellion, a silent testament to an unyielding spirit.

Natural Styling and Definition Techniques

The innate desire to adorn and define one’s hair, a practice deeply ingrained in African heritage, found new avenues of expression even under the Tignon Law. Before the law, free women of color in New Orleans were celebrated for their elaborate and beautiful hairstyles, often adorned with jewels and feathers, reflecting a distinct Afro-Creole aesthetic. These styles were a visual assertion of their identity and social standing. When the tignon was mandated, these women did not simply comply by covering their hair plainly.

Instead, they transformed the tignon itself into a statement, using luxurious fabrics, vibrant colors, and intricate wrapping techniques. This act of creative defiance speaks to a profound understanding of natural hair’s inherent beauty and the unwavering spirit to celebrate it, even when obscured. The ingenuity of these women in adapting traditional headwrapping practices, common in West Africa for centuries to signify status, marital standing, or religious belief, into a form of resistance, underscores the deep connection between hair, self-expression, and cultural heritage.

The Tignon Law, while intended to suppress, instead spurred an artistic evolution in headwrap styling, cementing its place as a symbol of defiance and cultural pride.

The historical response to the Tignon Law offers a compelling case study in cultural resilience. Despite the law’s aim to diminish the women’s perceived status and attractiveness, their elaborate and artful tignons became a new form of public display, so striking that white women in New Orleans reportedly began to imitate the style. (Long, cited in The Wrap Life, 2018) This specific historical example powerfully illuminates the Tignon Law’s connection to textured hair heritage and Black/mixed-race experiences.

It shows how a seemingly simple piece of fabric, meant to erase identity, became a canvas for powerful self-expression, demonstrating how ancestral practices of adornment and symbolism were adapted to resist oppression. The tradition of elaborate headwrapping, rooted in African heritage, thus continued, evolving into the diverse and vibrant styles seen today.

Wigs and Hair Extensions Mastery

While the Tignon Law directly addressed natural hair and head coverings, its broader heritage impact subtly influenced the relationship between Black women and alternative hair solutions like wigs and extensions. In the colonial era, enslaved Africans sometimes mimicked European hairstyles, including wigs, when working in the “big house” as a means of assimilation or survival. The Tignon Law, by attempting to enforce a visible distinction, further highlighted the policing of Black women’s appearances. This historical context provides a lens through which to understand the enduring appeal and function of wigs and extensions within the Black community today.

They can be seen as a continuation of the adaptability and versatility inherent in textured hair heritage, offering both protective styling benefits and avenues for diverse self-expression, particularly in environments where natural hair might still face discrimination. The legacy of navigating societal pressures around hair, a pressure intensified by laws like the Tignon Law, continues to shape the choices made regarding hair presentation.

Heat Styling and Thermal Reconditioning

The Tignon Law’s impact on heat styling is less direct, yet still relevant through the lens of societal pressure and assimilation. The historical desire to conform to Eurocentric beauty standards, which often favored straight hair, led to the widespread adoption of chemical relaxers and heat-based straightening methods in later centuries. This pursuit of a “tamed” or “neat” appearance, often seen as a prerequisite for social and economic acceptance, can be traced back to the broader attempts to control Black women’s hair and identity, of which the Tignon Law was an early, stark example.

The heritage of textured hair, however, has always included methods of manipulation and styling that respected its natural integrity. The current movement towards embracing natural hair and minimizing heat damage can be viewed as a modern reclamation of ancestral wisdom, a conscious decision to prioritize hair health and authentic self-expression over imposed beauty ideals, a direct counter-narrative to the historical forces that birthed laws like the tignon mandate.

The Complete Textured Hair Toolkit

The tools used for textured hair care are not merely instruments; they are extensions of a rich heritage of grooming practices. From wide-tooth combs and specialized brushes designed to navigate coils and kinks, to natural materials used for adornment, each item carries a story. While the Tignon Law focused on concealment, it did not diminish the need for daily care and styling. The ingenuity of the women who transformed the tignon itself into a decorative statement speaks to a deep understanding of materials and aesthetics.

Their ability to craft elaborate wraps from luxurious fabrics, sometimes adorned with jewels and feathers, required a mastery of manipulation and an eye for design, effectively turning a tool of oppression into an accessory of resistance. This historical context reminds us that the toolkit for textured hair extends beyond physical implements; it includes the ancestral knowledge of how to adapt, how to create beauty from constraint, and how to use every available resource to maintain dignity and identity.

Relay

How does the enduring spirit of the Tignon Law continue to shape contemporary conversations around textured hair, cultural narratives, and future traditions? This inquiry compels us to consider the less apparent complexities that this historical edict unearths, drawing us into a space where science, culture, and heritage converge. The relay of its legacy is not a simple passing of a baton; it is a profound, intricate dance between historical imposition and unwavering self-determination, a testament to the power of hair as a living archive of Black and mixed-race experiences.

Building Personalized Textured Hair Regimens

The very notion of a personalized textured hair regimen, a contemporary concept emphasizing individual needs and hair types, finds a curious resonance in the historical context of the Tignon Law. While the law aimed for uniformity of appearance, it inadvertently highlighted the inherent diversity of textured hair and the necessity of individual care. Before the law, the elaborate hairstyles of free women of color were a testament to personalized styling, each woman’s hair a canvas for her unique expression. Even under the tignon, the underlying hair still required attention, and the choice of fabric, the manner of wrapping, and the subtle adornments spoke to a personal aesthetic within the confines of the law.

This echoes ancestral wisdom, where hair care was often tailored to specific needs, utilizing natural ingredients passed down through generations. (Katherine Haircare, 2025) Today, this personalized approach, often blending scientific understanding with traditional practices, is a powerful act of reclaiming agency over one’s hair, a direct counterpoint to historical attempts at control. The understanding that “good hair is defined by hair health not by hair texture” is a modern articulation of a heritage-based perspective that prioritizes wellness over imposed standards.

The Nighttime Sanctuary ❉ Essential Sleep Protection and Bonnet Wisdom

The practice of protecting textured hair at night, a ritual deeply ingrained in Black and mixed-race communities, holds a subtle yet significant connection to the heritage impact of the Tignon Law. While the law focused on daytime public appearance, the underlying necessity of preserving intricate styles and maintaining hair health persisted. The historical headwrap, or tignon, though enforced, likely offered some protective benefits, shielding hair from environmental elements. This might have, in an ironic twist, reinforced the practical utility of head coverings for hair preservation.

The contemporary silk scarf or satin bonnet, a staple in many textured hair regimens, extends this ancestral wisdom, protecting delicate strands from friction and moisture loss during sleep. This nightly ritual, often passed down from mothers and grandmothers, is not merely about maintenance; it is an act of self-care, a quiet defiance that prioritizes the health and integrity of textured hair, echoing the resilience demonstrated by women who transformed the oppressive tignon into a symbol of beauty and identity. (Jackson, 2024)

The enduring tradition of nighttime hair protection, often through bonnets and wraps, reflects an ancestral wisdom of care, a practice that gained a subtle, perhaps unintended, reinforcement from the Tignon Law’s mandate for head coverings.

Ingredient Deep Dives for Textured Hair Needs

The wisdom of ancestral ingredients for textured hair care represents a profound, unbroken chain of heritage, one that existed long before and persisted despite laws like the Tignon Law. African communities traditionally utilized a wealth of natural resources for hair health, understanding the nourishing properties of various plants, oils, and butters. These practices were not just about appearance; they were about holistic well-being and connection to the land. The Tignon Law, in its attempt to control external presentation, could not sever the deep-seated knowledge of these internal practices.

Women continued to care for their hair with ingredients like Shea Butter, Coconut Oil, and Aloe Vera, substances known for their moisturizing and protective qualities. This deep connection to ethnobotany and traditional medicine ensured the vitality of textured hair even when its public display was restricted. The continued use of these ingredients today is a powerful affirmation of ancestral practices, a testament to the enduring efficacy of natural remedies passed down through generations.

Consider some of the traditional ingredients and their roles:

1. Shea Butter ❉ Extracted from the nuts of the shea tree, revered for centuries across Africa for its profound moisturizing and sealing properties, rich in vitamins A and E.
2. Coconut Oil ❉ A versatile staple in many African and diasporic hair care traditions, known for its ability to moisturize, condition, and promote scalp health.
3. Aloe Vera ❉ Used for its soothing and hydrating qualities, often applied to the scalp to address dryness and provide moisture to strands.
4. Chebe Powder ❉ A blend of natural herbs and seeds from Chad, traditionally used by Basara Arab women for hair growth and length retention.
5. African Black Soap ❉ A traditional West African cleanser, rich in antioxidants and minerals, used for gentle cleansing of hair and scalp without stripping natural oils.

Textured Hair Problem Solving Compendium

The challenges faced by textured hair, from dryness to breakage, are not new; they are concerns that have been addressed through generations of ancestral knowledge and adaptive practices. The Tignon Law, by creating a context of concealment, may have, in an unforeseen way, reinforced the importance of healthy hair beneath the coverings. If hair was damaged or poorly maintained, even a beautiful tignon might not fully obscure the issue. This subtle pressure to maintain hair health, even in secret, contributed to the ongoing development of problem-solving techniques.

Today, the collective wisdom of the textured hair community, drawing from both traditional remedies and modern scientific understanding, addresses these issues. The resilience of textured hair, and the ingenuity in its care, can be seen as a direct lineage from those who, centuries ago, ensured their hair thrived despite societal attempts to diminish its presence. The enduring nature of textured hair care, in its commitment to addressing specific challenges, is a powerful heritage impact of navigating historical pressures.

Holistic Influences on Hair Health

The holistic approach to hair health, recognizing its connection to overall well-being, mind, and spirit, is deeply rooted in African ancestral philosophies. In many traditional African cultures, hair was considered sacred, a conduit for spiritual energy, and a symbol of one’s connection to ancestors and deities. The Tignon Law, by attempting to sever the visual link between Black women and their hair, aimed to disrupt this holistic connection. However, the women’s defiant response—transforming the tignon into an artistic statement—was a profound act of preserving this holistic identity.

It demonstrated that true beauty and well-being could not be dictated by external mandates. The continued practice of communal hair rituals, the use of natural ingredients, and the understanding of hair as a reflection of inner health, all speak to a heritage that views hair not as an isolated biological entity, but as an integral part of a person’s entire being. This enduring holistic perspective, a quiet rebellion against external control, is a lasting heritage impact of the Tignon Law.

Relay

How does the enduring spirit of the Tignon Law continue to shape contemporary conversations around textured hair, cultural narratives, and future traditions? This inquiry compels us to consider the less apparent complexities that this historical edict unearths, drawing us into a space where science, culture, and heritage converge. The relay of its legacy is not a simple passing of a baton; it is a profound, intricate dance between historical imposition and unwavering self-determination, a testament to the power of hair as a living archive of Black and mixed-race experiences.

Building Personalized Textured Hair Regimens

The very notion of a personalized textured hair regimen, a contemporary concept emphasizing individual needs and hair types, finds a curious resonance in the historical context of the Tignon Law. While the law aimed for uniformity of appearance, it inadvertently highlighted the inherent diversity of textured hair and the necessity of individual care. Before the law, the elaborate hairstyles of free women of color were a testament to personalized styling, each woman’s hair a canvas for her unique expression. Even under the tignon, the underlying hair still required attention, and the choice of fabric, the manner of wrapping, and the subtle adornments spoke to a personal aesthetic within the confines of the law.

This echoes ancestral wisdom, where hair care was often tailored to specific needs, utilizing natural ingredients passed down through generations. (Katherine Haircare, 2025) Today, this personalized approach, often blending scientific understanding with traditional practices, is a powerful act of reclaiming agency over one’s hair, a direct counterpoint to historical attempts at control. The understanding that “good hair is defined by hair health not by hair texture” is a modern articulation of a heritage-based perspective that prioritizes wellness over imposed standards.

The Nighttime Sanctuary ❉ Essential Sleep Protection and Bonnet Wisdom

The practice of protecting textured hair at night, a ritual deeply ingrained in Black and mixed-race communities, holds a subtle yet significant connection to the heritage impact of the Tignon Law. While the law focused on daytime public appearance, the underlying necessity of preserving intricate styles and maintaining hair health persisted. The historical headwrap, or tignon, though enforced, likely offered some protective benefits, shielding hair from environmental elements. This might have, in an unforeseen way, reinforced the practical utility of head coverings for hair preservation.

The contemporary silk scarf or satin bonnet, a staple in many textured hair regimens, extends this ancestral wisdom, protecting delicate strands from friction and moisture loss during sleep. This nightly ritual, often passed down from mothers and grandmothers, is not merely about maintenance; it is an act of self-care, a quiet defiance that prioritizes the health and integrity of textured hair, echoing the resilience demonstrated by women who transformed the oppressive tignon into a symbol of beauty and identity. (Jackson, 2024)

The enduring tradition of nighttime hair protection, often through bonnets and wraps, reflects an ancestral wisdom of care, a practice that gained a subtle, perhaps unintended, reinforcement from the Tignon Law’s mandate for head coverings.

Ingredient Deep Dives for Textured Hair Needs

The wisdom of ancestral ingredients for textured hair care represents a profound, unbroken chain of heritage, one that existed long before and persisted despite laws like the Tignon Law. African communities traditionally utilized a wealth of natural resources for hair health, understanding the nourishing properties of various plants, oils, and butters. These practices were not just about appearance; they were about holistic well-being and connection to the land. The Tignon Law, in its attempt to control external presentation, could not sever the deep-seated knowledge of these internal practices.

Women continued to care for their hair with ingredients like Shea Butter, Coconut Oil, and Aloe Vera, substances known for their moisturizing and protective qualities. This deep connection to ethnobotany and traditional medicine ensured the vitality of textured hair even when its public display was restricted. The continued use of these ingredients today is a powerful affirmation of ancestral practices, a testament to the enduring efficacy of natural remedies passed down through generations.

Consider some of the traditional ingredients and their roles:

1. Shea Butter ❉ Extracted from the nuts of the shea tree, revered for centuries across Africa for its profound moisturizing and sealing properties, rich in vitamins A and E.
2. Coconut Oil ❉ A versatile staple in many African and diasporic hair care traditions, known for its ability to moisturize, condition, and promote scalp health.
3. Aloe Vera ❉ Used for its soothing and hydrating qualities, often applied to the scalp to address dryness and provide moisture to strands.
4. Chebe Powder ❉ A blend of natural herbs and seeds from Chad, traditionally used by Basara Arab women for hair growth and length retention.
5. African Black Soap ❉ A traditional West African cleanser, rich in antioxidants and minerals, used for gentle cleansing of hair and scalp without stripping natural oils.

Textured Hair Problem Solving Compendium

The challenges faced by textured hair, from dryness to breakage, are not new; they are concerns that have been addressed through generations of ancestral knowledge and adaptive practices. The Tignon Law, by creating a context of concealment, may have, in an unforeseen way, reinforced the importance of healthy hair beneath the coverings. If hair was damaged or poorly maintained, even a beautiful tignon might not fully obscure the issue. This subtle pressure to maintain hair health, even in secret, contributed to the ongoing development of problem-solving techniques.

Today, the collective wisdom of the textured hair community, drawing from both traditional remedies and modern scientific understanding, addresses these issues. The resilience of textured hair, and the ingenuity in its care, can be seen as a direct lineage from those who, centuries ago, ensured their hair thrived despite societal attempts to diminish its presence. The enduring nature of textured hair care, in its commitment to addressing specific challenges, is a powerful heritage impact of the Tignon Law.

Holistic Influences on Hair Health

The holistic approach to hair health, recognizing its connection to overall well-being, mind, and spirit, is deeply rooted in African ancestral philosophies. In many traditional African cultures, hair was considered sacred, a conduit for spiritual energy, and a symbol of one’s connection to ancestors and deities. The Tignon Law, by attempting to sever the visual link between Black women and their hair, aimed to disrupt this holistic connection. However, the women’s defiant response—transforming the tignon into an artistic statement—was a profound act of preserving this holistic identity.

It demonstrated that true beauty and well-being could not be dictated by external mandates. The continued practice of communal hair rituals, the use of natural ingredients, and the understanding of hair as a reflection of inner health, all speak to a heritage that views hair not as an isolated biological entity, but as an integral part of a person’s entire being. This enduring holistic perspective, a quiet rebellion against external control, is a lasting heritage impact of the Tignon Law.

Reflection

The heritage impact of the Tignon Law stretches beyond the annals of 18th-century New Orleans, reaching into the very core of what it means to carry textured hair today. It is a story not of simple oppression, but of remarkable resilience, a testament to the profound ingenuity of Black and mixed-race women who transformed a symbol of subjugation into a beacon of self-expression. This historical moment, though born of colonial control, ultimately underscored the unbreakable bond between textured hair and identity, proving that the spirit of a people cannot be confined by decrees.

The legacy of the tignon lives on, not as a reminder of what was lost, but as a vibrant celebration of what was defiantly preserved and beautifully reinvented. It reminds us that our strands carry ancestral wisdom, a living archive of resistance, creativity, and an unyielding spirit of self-love, truly embodying the Soul of a Strand.

References

• Byrd, A. & Tharps, L. (2014). Hair Story ❉ Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. St. Martin’s Press.
• Gould, V. M. (1996). The Devil’s Lane ❉ Sex and Race in the Early South. Oxford University Press.
• Klein, S. (2000). Creole ❉ The History and Legacy of Louisiana’s Free People of Color. Louisiana State University Press.
• Long, C. (2006). A New Orleans Voudou Priestess ❉ The Legend and Reality of Marie Laveau. University Press of Florida.
• Rosado, S. (2003). The Grammar of Hair ❉ Hair as a Cultural and Historical Signifier for Black Women. Temple University Press.
• Sherrow, V. (2006). Encyclopedia of Hair ❉ A Cultural History. Greenwood Press.
• Winters, Z. (2015). The Mulatta Concubine ❉ Terror, Intimacy, Freedom, and Desire in the Black Transatlantic. University of Georgia Press.