How does ancestral botanical wisdom inform modern textured hair care?

Roots

For those who carry the lineage of textured hair, the very strands descending from the scalp hold stories—whispers of sun-drenched savannas, resilience etched into each curl, and the enduring wisdom of hands that knew the earth’s bounty. Our journey into how ancestral botanical wisdom informs modern textured hair care begins not with a sterile examination of ingredients, but with a reverence for this living heritage. It is an invitation to feel the pulse of history within your own hair, to recognize the echoes of ancient practices that still shape our rituals today. This is not merely about product or technique; it is about reconnection, about honoring the botanical allies that have sustained Black and mixed-race hair through generations, offering solace, strength, and a profound sense of self.

Hair Anatomy and Physiology from an Ancestral and Modern Scientific View

The science of textured hair, with its unique helical structure and varied curl patterns, reveals a biological blueprint shaped by millennia of adaptation. Unlike straight hair, the elliptical cross-section of a textured strand creates a natural inclination to coil, resulting in a cuticle that is often more raised and thus more susceptible to moisture loss. From an ancestral viewpoint, this unique biology was understood not through microscopes, but through observation and generations of experiential knowledge. Communities learned that these coils, while beautiful, required specific care—gentle handling, deep hydration, and protective styling to guard against breakage and environmental stressors.

This intuitive understanding, passed down through oral traditions and communal practices, laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry, which now validates the need for products that address the inherent dryness and fragility of textured hair by sealing the cuticle and retaining moisture. (Markiewicz and Idowu, 2023)

What Does Hair’s Helical Shape Tell Us About Its Heritage?

The very architecture of textured hair, from its elliptical follicle to its propensity for coiling, carries within it a deep heritage. This coiling, a hallmark of Black and mixed-race hair, translates into a cuticle layer that tends to be more open than that of straight hair, allowing moisture to escape more readily. Ancestral practices instinctively countered this by emphasizing hydration and protective measures. The application of rich plant oils and butters, for example, served as an occlusive layer, sealing in precious moisture.

Modern hair science, with its advanced microscopy and chemical analysis, now provides molecular explanations for these observations, revealing how disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds contribute to the hair’s coiled shape and its unique hydration needs. (Wood and Leyden)

Textured Hair Classification Systems and Their Cultural Origins

Contemporary hair typing systems, such as the widely recognized numerical and letter classifications, aim to categorize the diverse spectrum of textured hair, from loose waves to tight coils. While these systems offer a useful lexicon for modern care, it is essential to acknowledge their relatively recent origin and to consider the historical context of how hair was understood and valued within Black and mixed-race communities. Ancestral societies did not categorize hair based on a universal chart, but rather through the lens of tribal affiliation, social status, and individual identity.

Hairstyles themselves served as markers of age, marital status, and even spiritual beliefs. (Afriklens, 2024) This cultural understanding of hair’s meaning, far beyond its mere texture, provides a richer, more holistic framework for appreciating the heritage of textured hair.

For centuries, the visual language of hair in African societies conveyed messages about one’s place within the community. Braids, twists, and adornments were not merely aesthetic choices; they were declarations of identity, lineage, and life events. (Afriklens, 2024) The forced shaving of hair during the transatlantic slave trade, a cruel act of dehumanization, aimed to strip enslaved Africans of this powerful visual identity and cultural connection.

(The Gale Review, 2021) Yet, even in the face of such oppression, the practice of hair care persisted as a quiet act of resistance and cultural preservation. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)

• Irun Kiko ❉ Among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, hair threading, known as “Irun Kiko,” was a traditional practice dating back to at least the 15th century. This technique was not only for styling but also served to stretch hair and retain length, offering protection from breakage. (Ancient Gems, 2024)
• Chébé Powder ❉ Sourced from the Northern Chad mountains, Chébé powder, derived from the seeds of the Chébé plant, was traditionally used by women of the Bassara/Baggara Arab tribe. Mixed with water or shea butter, it was applied to hair to aid length retention by sealing the cuticle and filling hair shaft spaces. (Ancient Gems, 2024)
• Adornments ❉ Beyond the styles themselves, cowrie shells, beads, and other ornaments were woven into hair, serving as visual indicators of social class and personal style in various African cultures. (Ancient Gems, 2024)

Hair Growth Cycles and Influencing Factors

The cyclical nature of hair growth—anagen (growth), catagen (transition), and telogen (resting)—is a biological constant, yet its expression in textured hair can be significantly influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Ancestral communities, living in diverse climates and subsisting on varied diets, intuitively understood the impact of nutrition and climate on hair vitality. Traditional botanical remedies often addressed hair health from within, recognizing the interconnectedness of diet, overall wellbeing, and hair growth.

Modern science corroborates this, with research highlighting the link between nutritional deficiencies and hair loss. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024)

Ancestral botanical wisdom, woven into the very fabric of Black and mixed-race hair care, serves as a testament to generations of observation, adaptation, and profound respect for nature’s restorative power.

Ritual

Stepping into the realm of ritual, we honor the applied wisdom that has shaped textured hair care for centuries. This journey moves beyond foundational understanding, inviting us to witness the artistry and intentionality embedded in ancestral practices—techniques and methods that have evolved, adapted, and continue to resonate in our contemporary approaches to hair care. Here, the wisdom of generations comes alive, not as rigid dogma, but as a gentle guide, reflecting a shared, living archive of practical knowledge. We observe how the hands that once worked with raw botanicals, transforming them into elixirs and balms, laid the groundwork for the modern formulations we use today, all while preserving the profound respect for tradition.

Protective Styling Encyclopedia and Its Ancestral Roots

Protective styles, a cornerstone of textured hair care, trace their lineage directly to ancestral practices designed to safeguard delicate strands from environmental stressors and minimize manipulation. Styles like braids, twists, and cornrows, often intricately woven, served multiple purposes in pre-colonial African societies ❉ denoting tribal affiliation, social status, marital status, and even conveying spiritual beliefs. (Afriklens, 2024; The Gale Review, 2021) The historical continuity of these styles, even through the harrowing period of transatlantic slavery, stands as a testament to their enduring cultural significance and the ingenuity of Black people in preserving their heritage.

Enslaved individuals, despite forced assimilation and the stripping of their cultural markers, used braiding as a quiet act of resistance, sometimes even to communicate escape routes. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025; The History Of Black People Braiding Their Hair, 2023)

How Did Ancient Styles Serve as Resistance?

The practice of hair braiding during slavery transformed into a profound act of resistance. While slaveholders often forced enslaved Africans to shave their heads as a means of dehumanization and control, the communal act of braiding persisted. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025; The History Of Black People Braiding Their Hair, 2023) These sessions became spaces of shared resilience, where cultural identity was preserved and sometimes, even escape routes were subtly communicated through specific patterns. (The History Of Black People Braiding Their Hair, 2023; Braided Archives, 2021) This powerful historical example demonstrates how ancestral hair practices were not merely aesthetic but deeply intertwined with survival, identity, and the assertion of freedom.

Natural Styling and Definition Techniques

The pursuit of defined curls and coils, a hallmark of modern textured hair care, echoes ancient practices that celebrated the natural beauty of Black and mixed-race hair. Before the advent of chemical relaxers and hot combs, which emerged as tools of assimilation into Eurocentric beauty standards (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025), traditional methods focused on enhancing the hair’s inherent texture. These techniques often involved the skillful application of botanical preparations, allowing the hair to coil and clump naturally. The rhythmic motions of finger coiling, twisting, and braiding, passed down through generations, speak to a deep understanding of how to work with the hair’s natural inclination, rather than against it.

The Complete Textured Hair Toolkit

From the simplest comb carved from natural materials to the complex array of brushes and accessories available today, the tools of textured hair care tell a story of innovation and adaptation. Ancestral tools were often crafted from the earth itself—wood, bone, and plant fibers—reflecting a harmonious relationship with the natural world. These implements were designed for gentle detangling, precise sectioning for intricate styles, and the even distribution of botanical preparations. The evolution of these tools, from rudimentary combs to the specialized wide-tooth combs and detangling brushes of today, demonstrates a continuous quest for efficacy and comfort in hair management, always with an underlying respect for the hair’s unique structure.

Consider the journey of Shea Butter, a botanical treasure from the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), indigenous to the semi-arid savannas of sub-Saharan Africa. For thousands of years, shea butter has been a staple in African communities, not only as a food source but also as a cosmetic and medicinal substance. (Bayala et al, 2015) Its rich, emollient properties made it an ideal choice for nourishing and protecting textured hair, providing deep moisture and sealing the cuticle.

(Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025) This ancient ingredient, revered as “women’s green gold” in West Africa due to its economic importance, continues to be a cornerstone of modern textured hair products, a direct lineage from ancestral wisdom to contemporary formulations. (Pouliot, 2012; Naughton et al, 2017; USAID, 2016)

The legacy of protective styling, born from necessity and artistic expression, reminds us that caring for textured hair is a living tradition, a conversation between past ingenuity and present innovation.

Relay

How does the deep memory of textured hair, etched in cultural practices and ancestral wisdom, continue to shape not only our daily regimens but also the very narratives of identity and resilience? This section invites a more profound inquiry, moving beyond the practicalities to explore the intricate interplay of science, culture, and heritage that defines textured hair care today. We delve into the complex theoretical underpinnings, drawing from research and scholarship to illuminate the multifaceted ways in which ancestral botanical wisdom serves as a living, breathing archive, continually informing and inspiring our contemporary understanding.

Building Personalized Textured Hair Regimens Inspired by Ancestral Wisdom

The modern emphasis on personalized hair care regimens, tailored to individual needs, finds its resonance in ancestral practices that inherently understood and honored diversity within textured hair. Traditional African societies did not apply a one-size-fits-all approach; instead, care rituals were often adapted to specific hair types, climatic conditions, and available local botanicals. This intuitive personalization, guided by generational knowledge, predates contemporary cosmetic science’s quest for customized solutions. The ethnobotanical studies now emerging from various regions of Africa highlight a wealth of plant species traditionally used for hair care, offering a rich repository of ingredients whose efficacy is being explored through modern scientific lenses.

For instance, research identifies 68 plant species across Africa traditionally used for hair conditions such as alopecia and dandruff, with many also showing potential for antidiabetic properties, suggesting a holistic approach to wellness. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024)

How Does Ethnobotany Validate Traditional Practices?

Ethnobotany, the study of the relationship between people and plants, provides a crucial bridge between ancestral wisdom and modern scientific understanding. It systematically documents the traditional uses of plants, allowing researchers to investigate the biochemical compounds responsible for their purported benefits. For example, the long-standing use of Aloe Vera in various African cultures for hair and scalp care (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025) is now supported by scientific studies revealing its moisturizing, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024) This scientific validation of traditional knowledge not only confirms the efficacy of ancestral practices but also opens pathways for sustainable sourcing and ethical development of new hair care products, ensuring that the heritage of these botanicals is respected and continued.

The Nighttime Sanctuary ❉ Essential Sleep Protection and Bonnet Wisdom

The practice of protecting hair during sleep, often through the use of head coverings, is not a recent innovation but a deeply rooted ancestral tradition. For centuries, various forms of head wraps, scarves, and coverings were used across African cultures to preserve hairstyles, maintain moisture, and shield the hair from friction and environmental elements. This wisdom, passed down through generations, recognized the fragility of textured hair and the importance of minimizing disturbance to prevent breakage and tangles. The modern bonnet, a ubiquitous tool in many textured hair care routines, stands as a direct descendant of these historical practices, a contemporary expression of an enduring heritage of hair protection.

The careful wrapping of hair before sleep was more than a practical measure; it was a ritual of preservation, a silent act of care that acknowledged the labor and artistry invested in daily styling. This nighttime sanctuary, often involving silk or satin materials, aimed to reduce friction and prevent moisture loss, thereby safeguarding the hair’s structural integrity. This deep understanding of hair mechanics, albeit unarticulated in scientific terms, aligns perfectly with modern hair science, which emphasizes the role of smooth surfaces in preserving the cuticle layer and preventing mechanical damage.

Ingredient Deep Dives for Textured Hair Needs

The pharmacopoeia of ancestral hair care is rich with botanicals, each selected for its specific properties in nourishing, strengthening, and maintaining textured hair. Beyond shea butter, countless other plant-derived ingredients have played pivotal roles. The baobab tree, often called the ‘Tree of Life,’ yields an oil rich in antioxidants and essential fatty acids, traditionally used to refresh dry skin and hair. (From Ancient Remedies to Modern Cosmetics, 2024) Rooibos, a red tea from Southern Africa, has been employed for its anti-inflammatory properties, addressing scalp conditions.

(From Ancient Remedies to Modern Cosmetics, 2024) These ingredients, alongside others like coconut oil and aloe vera, form a living legacy of botanical wisdom. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)

The traditional use of these botanicals often involved minimal processing, allowing the full spectrum of their beneficial compounds to remain intact. This contrasts with some modern cosmetic formulations that may rely on synthetic alternatives or highly refined extracts. However, a growing movement in modern hair care seeks to return to these ancestral roots, prioritizing natural, ethically sourced ingredients that honor both the heritage of the plants and the communities that have long used them. This shift represents a powerful convergence of ancient wisdom and contemporary scientific understanding, leading to more holistic and effective solutions for textured hair.

1. Shea Butter ❉ Derived from the nuts of the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), it has been used for millennia across West Africa for its deep moisturizing and protective qualities for skin and hair. (Bayala et al, 2015; The Origin of Shea Butter, 2024)
2. Coconut Oil ❉ A versatile oil with a long history of use in various cultures, valued for its ability to penetrate the hair shaft and reduce protein loss, contributing to hair strength and luster. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)
3. Aloe Vera ❉ The gel from this succulent plant has been a traditional remedy for scalp irritation and dryness, known for its soothing and hydrating properties. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)
4. Chebe Powder ❉ Originating from Chad, this powder, from the Croton zambesicus plant, is traditionally used to strengthen hair and promote length retention by creating a protective barrier. (Ancient Gems, 2024)

Holistic Influences on Hair Health

Ancestral wellness philosophies consistently underscore the interconnectedness of body, mind, and spirit, viewing hair health not in isolation but as a reflection of overall wellbeing. This holistic perspective, deeply rooted in Black and mixed-race heritage, contrasts with a purely symptomatic approach to hair problems. Traditional healing systems often addressed hair concerns through a combination of topical botanical applications, dietary adjustments, and spiritual practices. This comprehensive approach recognized that stress, nutrition, and even communal harmony could impact the vitality of one’s hair.

Modern research is increasingly validating these ancient insights, linking nutritional deficiencies, stress, and systemic health conditions to various hair pathologies. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024)

The concept of hair as a spiritual antenna, a conduit for ancestral connection, is present in many African traditions. This reverence for hair imbued its care with a sacred quality, transforming routine practices into meaningful rituals. This deep cultural and spiritual significance means that hair care extends beyond mere aesthetics; it becomes an act of self-care, cultural affirmation, and connection to a lineage of wisdom. The ongoing journey of textured hair care, therefore, is not simply about achieving a desired look but about honoring a profound heritage of resilience, beauty, and holistic wellbeing.

The deep understanding of botanicals for hair care, passed down through generations, is a testament to ancestral ingenuity and a powerful guide for our modern pursuit of hair health.

Relay

How does the deep memory of textured hair, etched in cultural practices and ancestral wisdom, continue to shape not only our daily regimens but also the very narratives of identity and resilience? This section invites a more profound inquiry, moving beyond the practicalities to explore the intricate interplay of science, culture, and heritage that defines textured hair care today. We delve into the complex theoretical underpinnings, drawing from research and scholarship to illuminate the multifaceted ways in which ancestral botanical wisdom serves as a living, breathing archive, continually informing and inspiring our contemporary understanding.

Building Personalized Textured Hair Regimens Inspired by Ancestral Wisdom

The modern emphasis on personalized hair care regimens, tailored to individual needs, finds its resonance in ancestral practices that inherently understood and honored diversity within textured hair. Traditional African societies did not apply a one-size-fits-all approach; instead, care rituals were often adapted to specific hair types, climatic conditions, and available local botanicals. This intuitive personalization, guided by generational knowledge, predates contemporary cosmetic science’s quest for customized solutions. The ethnobotanical studies now emerging from various regions of Africa highlight a wealth of plant species traditionally used for hair care, offering a rich repository of ingredients whose efficacy is being explored through modern scientific lenses.

For instance, research identifies 68 plant species across Africa traditionally used for hair conditions such as alopecia and dandruff, with many also showing potential for antidiabetic properties, suggesting a holistic approach to wellness. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024)

How Does Ethnobotany Validate Traditional Practices?

Ethnobotany, the study of the relationship between people and plants, provides a crucial bridge between ancestral wisdom and modern scientific understanding. It systematically documents the traditional uses of plants, allowing researchers to investigate the biochemical compounds responsible for their purported benefits. For example, the long-standing use of Aloe Vera in various African cultures for hair and scalp care (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025) is now supported by scientific studies revealing its moisturizing, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024) This scientific validation of traditional knowledge not only confirms the efficacy of ancestral practices but also opens pathways for sustainable sourcing and ethical development of new hair care products, ensuring that the heritage of these botanicals is respected and continued.

The Nighttime Sanctuary ❉ Essential Sleep Protection and Bonnet Wisdom

The practice of protecting hair during sleep, often through the use of head coverings, is not a recent innovation but a deeply rooted ancestral tradition. For centuries, various forms of head wraps, scarves, and coverings were used across African cultures to preserve hairstyles, maintain moisture, and shield the hair from friction and environmental elements. This wisdom, passed down through generations, recognized the fragility of textured hair and the importance of minimizing disturbance to prevent breakage and tangles. The modern bonnet, a ubiquitous tool in many textured hair care routines, stands as a direct descendant of these historical practices, a contemporary expression of an enduring heritage of hair protection.

The careful wrapping of hair before sleep was more than a practical measure; it was a ritual of preservation, a silent act of care that acknowledged the labor and artistry invested in daily styling. This nighttime sanctuary, often involving silk or satin materials, aimed to reduce friction and prevent moisture loss, thereby safeguarding the hair’s structural integrity. This deep understanding of hair mechanics, albeit unarticulated in scientific terms, aligns perfectly with modern hair science, which emphasizes the role of smooth surfaces in preserving the cuticle layer and preventing mechanical damage.

Ingredient Deep Dives for Textured Hair Needs

The pharmacopoeia of ancestral hair care is rich with botanicals, each selected for its specific properties in nourishing, strengthening, and maintaining textured hair. Beyond shea butter, countless other plant-derived ingredients have played pivotal roles. The baobab tree, often called the ‘Tree of Life,’ yields an oil rich in antioxidants and essential fatty acids, traditionally used to refresh dry skin and hair. (From Ancient Remedies to Modern Cosmetics, 2024) Rooibos, a red tea from Southern Africa, has been employed for its anti-inflammatory properties, addressing scalp conditions.

(From Ancient Remedies to Modern Cosmetics, 2024) These ingredients, alongside others like coconut oil and aloe vera, form a living legacy of botanical wisdom. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)

The traditional use of these botanicals often involved minimal processing, allowing the full spectrum of their beneficial compounds to remain intact. This contrasts with some modern cosmetic formulations that may rely on synthetic alternatives or highly refined extracts. However, a growing movement in modern hair care seeks to return to these ancestral roots, prioritizing natural, ethically sourced ingredients that honor both the heritage of the plants and the communities that have long used them. This shift represents a powerful convergence of ancient wisdom and contemporary scientific understanding, leading to more holistic and effective solutions for textured hair.

1. Shea Butter ❉ Derived from the nuts of the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), it has been used for millennia across West Africa for its deep moisturizing and protective qualities for skin and hair. (Bayala et al, 2015; The Origin of Shea Butter, 2024)
2. Coconut Oil ❉ A versatile oil with a long history of use in various cultures, valued for its ability to penetrate the hair shaft and reduce protein loss, contributing to hair strength and luster. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)
3. Aloe Vera ❉ The gel from this succulent plant has been a traditional remedy for scalp irritation and dryness, known for its soothing and hydrating properties. (Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora, 2025)
4. Chebe Powder ❉ Originating from Chad, this powder, from the Croton zambesicus plant, is traditionally used to strengthen hair and promote length retention by creating a protective barrier. (Ancient Gems, 2024)

Holistic Influences on Hair Health

Ancestral wellness philosophies consistently underscore the interconnectedness of body, mind, and spirit, viewing hair health not in isolation but as a reflection of overall wellbeing. This holistic perspective, deeply rooted in Black and mixed-race heritage, contrasts with a purely symptomatic approach to hair problems. Traditional healing systems often addressed hair concerns through a combination of topical botanical applications, dietary adjustments, and spiritual practices. This comprehensive approach recognized that stress, nutrition, and even communal harmony could impact the vitality of one’s hair.

Modern research is increasingly validating these ancient insights, linking nutritional deficiencies, stress, and systemic health conditions to various hair pathologies. (Cosmetopoeia of African Plants, 2024)

The concept of hair as a spiritual antenna, a conduit for ancestral connection, is present in many African traditions. This reverence for hair imbued its care with a sacred quality, transforming routine practices into meaningful rituals. This deep cultural and spiritual significance means that hair care extends beyond mere aesthetics; it becomes an act of self-care, cultural affirmation, and connection to a lineage of wisdom. The ongoing journey of textured hair care, therefore, is not simply about achieving a desired look but about honoring a profound heritage of resilience, beauty, and holistic wellbeing.

The deep understanding of botanicals for hair care, passed down through generations, is a testament to ancestral ingenuity and a powerful guide for our modern pursuit of hair health.

Reflection

The journey through ancestral botanical wisdom and its influence on modern textured hair care reveals a profound truth ❉ the ‘Soul of a Strand’ is inextricably linked to the enduring heritage of Black and mixed-race experiences. Each curl, coil, and wave carries the memory of practices honed over millennia, of botanical allies revered for their power to nourish and protect. This exploration is more than a historical accounting; it is a living, breathing archive, continually inviting us to recognize the resilience embedded in our hair traditions.

It reminds us that care is not merely a chore but a sacred ritual, a way to honor those who came before us, and a path to self-acceptance in a world that often seeks to diminish the inherent beauty of textured hair. The wisdom of the past, preserved in the earth’s botanicals and the hands that worked with them, continues to guide our present and illuminate a future where every strand tells a story of strength, identity, and enduring legacy.

References

• Afriklens. (2024). African Hairstyles ❉ Cultural Significance and Legacy .
• Bayala, J. et al. (2015). Shea Tree Crop Management in West Africa. CIFOR-ICRAF.
• Cosmetopoeia of African Plants in Hair Treatment and Care ❉ Topical Nutrition and the Antidiabetic Connection? (2024). MDPI .
• From Ancient Remedies to Modern Cosmetics with African Herbs and Spices. (2024).
• Hair Care Practices from the Diaspora ❉ A Look at Africa, America, and Europe. (2025).
• Markiewicz, E. & Idowu, O. C. (2023). Exploring the Use of Natural Ingredients for Textured Hair UV Protection. ResearchGate.
• Naughton, F. et al. (2017). Shea in West Africa ❉ A green gold for women’s livelihoods .
• Omotos, A. (2018). African Hairstyles – The “Dreaded” Colonial Legacy. The Gale Review.
• The History Of Black People Braiding Their Hair. (2023).
• The Origin of Shea Butter ❉ A Valuable Treasure from Africa. (2024). ABOC Directory .
• Pouliot, M. (2012). Shea Nut Value Chains in West Africa ❉ Market Trends and Policy Implications .
• Rosado, S. (2003). Braided Archives ❉ Black hair as a site of diasporic transindividuation. YorkSpace.
• USAID. (2016). Shea Butter ❉ A Source of Income for Women in West Africa .
• Wood, M. & Leyden, M. Chemistry of Wellness ❉ Hair and Hair Care. UVA ChemSciComm.