Can modern science validate ancestral hair care practices for textured strands?

Roots

The whisper of wind through ancient trees carries stories from epochs past. Just as a forest’s health is etched in its very roots, so too is the vitality and story of textured hair intertwined with its fundamental structure. For generations, before the advent of microscopes or molecular analyses, our ancestors grasped the deep language of their strands. They observed, they experimented, and they passed down wisdom through touch and tradition, crafting a legacy of care that spoke to the unique needs of hair that coiled, crimped, and spiraled.

The query of whether modern science can affirm these practices is not merely an academic exercise; it is an invitation to listen to the echoes of ancestral hands, to witness how their deep attunement to nature’s rhythms and hair’s inherent character laid groundwork for what we now dissect in laboratories. This study is a tribute to the enduring ingenuity embedded within textured hair heritage, a testament to how deep observation, long before the scientific method was codified, yielded significant truths about the physical world.

The Hair’s Intrinsic Design

Each strand of textured hair is a testament to biological marvel, a complex fiber shaped by its follicular origin. Unlike straight hair, which typically possesses a round cross-section, coily and kinky strands often present an elliptical or flattened shape. This structural distinction influences how the hair grows, how it retains moisture, and its propensity for tangling or breakage. The twists and turns along the hair shaft, known as points of curvature, create areas where the cuticle, the hair’s protective outer layer, is lifted or unevenly distributed.

This inherent characteristic makes textured hair more susceptible to moisture loss and more prone to mechanical stress. Our forebears, without scientific instruments, comprehended this fragility. They knew, for instance, that dryness was a constant adversary and that gentle handling was most important. Their remedies, often rich in emollients and humectants from their immediate environment, were direct responses to these observed needs.

The scientific validation here rests in knowing the biomechanics of hair fiber. The unique helical structure of textured hair means that tension is not evenly distributed along the shaft, making it more prone to fracture at the points of maximum curvature. Ancestral practices of low manipulation and deep conditioning directly mitigated these structural vulnerabilities.

How does the Microscopic Structure of Textured Hair Affect Its Daily Care?

The microscopic differences within textured hair types dictate a specialized method for care. The cuticle scales, which lie flat in straight hair, are often raised or more irregularly aligned in coily and kinky strands. This means the outer layer is less effective at sealing in moisture, leading to faster dehydration. Furthermore, the density of disulfide bonds, which contribute to hair strength, can vary along the twisted shaft, creating weaker points.

Ancestral methods of deep oiling, such as the frequent application of palm oil in parts of West Africa or castor oil in Caribbean communities, created an external barrier, mimicking the function of a smooth, intact cuticle and thereby reducing moisture evaporation. These oils also offered lubrication, allowing strands to glide past one another during styling, minimizing the friction that leads to breakage at these fragile points. This historical wisdom, often passed down through matriarchal lines, directly addressed the physical realities of the hair fiber. The use of red palm oil , for instance, has been documented in West Africa for over 5,000 years for both culinary and cosmetic purposes, including hair care, providing a protective mask against sun exposure and environmental damage. Similarly, Jamaican Black Castor Oil, originating from Africa and brought to the Caribbean during the slave trade, has been used for centuries for its ability to enhance hair growth and vitality due to its rich fatty acid profile.

Anatomy’s Ancestral Resonance

Moving to the hair’s core, the cortex, a central component of the hair shaft, contains keratin proteins that determine its strength and elasticity. In textured hair, the arrangement of these keratin fibers can differ, contributing to its springiness and resilience, yet also its vulnerability. The medulla, the innermost layer, is often discontinuous or absent in finer textured strands, further impacting its overall integrity. The ancestral knowledge of these properties, while not articulated in biochemical terms, manifested in practices designed to fortify and protect.

For example, the use of mucilaginous plants like okra or aloe vera in various West African and Indigenous American traditions offered a slippery coating, reducing friction and aiding detangling, thereby safeguarding the cuticle and cortex from damage (Opoku, 2018). This practical application, passed down through generations, directly addresses the scientific reality of textured hair’s delicate structure. The historical use of protein-rich ingredients, such as certain plant-based milks or fermented grains in hair rinses, could also be seen as an intuitive protein treatment, supplying building blocks for the hair fiber, even if the exact chemical process was unknown.

The wisdom of ancient hair care practices often mirrors modern scientific understanding of textured hair’s unique structural and hydration requirements.

The concept of hair porosity, a central aspect of modern hair science referring to how well hair absorbs and retains moisture, was implicitly grasped by ancestral communities. Hair that quickly absorbed water but dried out rapidly was recognized as ‘thirsty,’ leading to frequent moisturizing rituals. Conversely, hair that repelled water might be treated with warming oils or steam to facilitate absorption. This intuitive grasp, honed over centuries of trial and error, directly parallels current trichological advice for managing different porosity levels.

The communal aspect of hair care, where older generations guided younger ones, served as a living laboratory, refining techniques and identifying effective remedies based on observed results. This shared knowledge, a vital component of textured hair heritage, ensured that effective practices were preserved and adapted across generations.

Classifying the Coil and Curl

The contemporary classification systems for textured hair, often using numerical and alphabetical designations (e.g. 3A, 4C), are relatively recent constructs. Historically, communities described hair not by arbitrary numbers but by its visual appearance, its feel, and its ancestral lineage. These descriptions were often qualitative and culturally specific, rooted in observations of hair behavior within local climates and against particular skin tones.

In some parts of Southern Africa, hair might be described by its resemblance to certain plants or natural formations, such as ‘river reed’ for finer, wavy textures, or ‘thorn bush’ for very dense, tightly coiled patterns. These descriptive metaphors carried layers of meaning, connecting hair to the natural world and the community’s immediate environment.

These heritage-based classifications, while lacking the empirical precision of modern metrics, offered a framework for effective care within their cultural contexts. They guided choices of ingredients, styling techniques, and even social interactions related to hair. The communal knowledge of these distinctions meant that care practices were often tailored not just to individual hair types, but to shared family or tribal characteristics, creating a collective grasp of hair’s needs within a lineage. This collective wisdom was a sophisticated system of empirical knowledge, refined through generations of observation and application.

The Cycles of Hair Growth and Ancestral Awareness

Modern trichology meticulously maps the hair growth cycle ❉ anagen (growth), catagen (transition), and telogen (rest). Ancestral communities, without this biological vocabulary, possessed an intuitive grasp of these phases, reflected in their practices. They recognized periods of shedding, growth, and stagnation, often attributing them to natural cycles, diet, or spiritual well-being. The emphasis on gentle manipulation and protective styling during perceived periods of ‘fragility’ or ‘shedding’ aligns with the scientific understanding of minimizing stress during the telogen phase.

Furthermore, historical environmental and nutritional factors contributed significantly. Access to nutrient-rich foods, often grown locally, supplied the building blocks for healthy hair. Communities with diets rich in essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, often derived from diverse plant sources and sustainable animal husbandry, would naturally experience healthier hair growth. Conversely, periods of scarcity or forced displacement, as experienced by many during the transatlantic slave trade, led to nutritional deficiencies that impacted hair health, a grim historical example of environmental factors altering hair vitality.

The knowledge of which seasonal plants aided growth or soothed scalp irritation was a form of applied botanical science, directly impacting the hair’s life cycle. This holistic view, where internal and external factors converged, is a central tenet of both ancestral wisdom and contemporary wellness.

Ritual

As we move from the deep roots of understanding to the living traditions of hair care, we enter the realm of ritual. It is here, in the tender rhythm of hands at work, that the foundational knowledge of textured strands transforms into applied artistry. The practices passed down through generations—the braiding, the twisting, the oiling, the adornment—are not merely aesthetic choices. They are a deep dialogue between the individual, their community, and the ancestral spirit of their hair.

This section invites us to witness how these ancient rituals, shaped by necessity and creativity, speak to contemporary scientific principles, giving guidance for today’s care. The continuity of these styling methods speaks to their enduring efficacy and their deep cultural resonance, affirming the beauty and adaptability of textured hair heritage.

Protective Styles ❉ A Legacy of Preservation

The array of protective styles seen today—braids, twists, cornrows, and buns—are direct descendants of ancestral practices. These styles served multiple purposes beyond mere aesthetics. In various African societies, specific braiding patterns communicated social status, marital standing, age, or tribal affiliation. Beyond these cultural markers, they offered practical benefits ❉ shielding the hair from environmental aggressors like sun and dust, minimizing manipulation, and preserving moisture.

Modern science confirms the efficacy of these styles in reducing mechanical stress and breakage. By keeping the hair bundled and tucked away, protective styles prevent excessive friction against clothing and other surfaces, which can lead to cuticle damage and subsequent loss of length. The longevity of these styles, often worn for weeks, allowed the hair to rest and retain natural oils, mirroring the modern concept of low-manipulation styling for length retention.

How do Traditional Protective Styles Align with Contemporary Hair Health Principles?

The alignment is striking. Traditional protective styles often incorporated natural fibers and adornments, which were themselves infused with protective properties. The use of cowrie shells or amber beads in some West African styles not only added beauty but could also act as anchors, distributing tension and preventing localized stress on the hair shaft. The tightness of braids, a common concern today, was often balanced by the wisdom of elders who comprehended the importance of gentle tension to preserve the hairline.

This knowledge, while not expressed in terms of ‘traction alopecia,’ clearly recognized the potential for damage from excessive pulling. The communal aspect of styling, where experienced hands would create complex patterns, also ensured that techniques were executed with skill and care, minimizing harm.

The scientific rationale for protective styles is multifaceted. By reducing exposure to environmental elements like UV radiation and pollutants, these styles mitigate oxidative stress on the hair proteins. The physical bundling of strands prevents tangling, which is a major cause of mechanical breakage in textured hair. The hair’s natural sebum, a protective oil produced by the scalp, is allowed to distribute more evenly along the hair shaft when strands are grouped, offering natural conditioning.

This natural conditioning is further enhanced by the common ancestral practice of pre-braiding oiling or greasing, which sealed in moisture and added a layer of protection. Historical accounts and contemporary anthropological studies show how these styles were meticulously maintained, often with regular re-oiling and cleansing of the scalp beneath the braids. This meticulousness speaks to a deep, practical understanding of hair longevity and health.

• Braiding ❉ Reduces tangling and friction, promoting length retention by minimizing daily manipulation and protecting ends from exposure.
• Twisting ❉ A gentle method for clumping curls, aiding moisture distribution and reducing frizz, thereby maintaining strand integrity and preventing single strand knots.
• Cornrowing ❉ Creates a stable base for extensions or wigs, protecting the scalp and hair from direct exposure and manipulation, while allowing for scalp access for oiling.
• Bantu Knots ❉ A traditional method of coiling hair into compact knots, which can stretch curls without heat and offer a protective, self-contained style.

The Gentle Touch of Natural Styling

Beyond elaborate protective styles, daily care involved methods for defining and enhancing the hair’s natural texture. Practices such as finger coiling, shingling with natural emollients, or simply allowing hair to air dry after washing were common. These methods, often performed communally, reinforced the inherent beauty of textured hair without relying on harsh chemicals or excessive heat. The respect for the hair’s natural state was a central element of many ancestral beauty philosophies.

The use of bentonite clay or rhassoul clay in North African and Middle Eastern traditions for cleansing and conditioning gives a strong example. These clays, rich in minerals, absorb impurities without stripping natural oils, leaving hair soft and defined. Modern scientific analysis reveals that these clays possess a negative charge, which binds to positively charged impurities and toxins, effectively cleansing the hair and scalp while depositing beneficial minerals.

This aligns with contemporary formulations that seek gentle, non-stripping cleansers that maintain the hair’s natural moisture balance. The deep cleansing and conditioning properties of these clays were recognized for centuries, long before their ionic properties were grasped.

In many West African cultures, the use of rice water as a rinse was also prevalent, particularly in communities like the Yao women of China, whose tradition of extremely long, healthy hair is well-documented (Kaku et al. 2019). While geographically distinct, the practice of using fermented rice water, rich in vitamins, amino acids, and inositol, a carbohydrate that can strengthen hair, reflects a shared ancestral wisdom about nutrient-rich rinses.

Modern studies are now exploring the benefits of inositol in reducing friction and improving hair elasticity, thereby validating this ancient practice. The patient application of these rinses, often accompanied by massage, also promoted scalp health and blood circulation, further supporting hair vitality.

The Historical Reach of Wigs and Hair Extensions

The history of wigs and hair extensions for textured hair is far older than many might presume, tracing back to ancient Egypt and various African kingdoms. These were not merely fashion statements; they often served protective functions, signifying status, or even aiding in ritualistic practices. In ancient Egypt, elaborate wigs protected the scalp from the intense sun and served as a surface for complex adornment. The materials ranged from human hair to plant fibers, intricately braided or woven.

Archaeological findings from ancient Egyptian tombs reveal wigs made from human hair and vegetable fibers, meticulously styled and often treated with beeswax and resin, demonstrating a sophisticated grasp of hair manipulation and preservation (Fletcher, 2016). This highlights not only a protective element but also a cultural emphasis on presentation and status.

Today, hair extensions continue to serve both aesthetic and protective roles for textured hair. Modern science confirms that when installed correctly, extensions can reduce daily manipulation, allowing natural hair to rest and grow. The ancestral wisdom of securing hair additions in a manner that did not cause undue tension or damage to the scalp is a principle that modern stylists continue to uphold for healthy hair practices.

The careful selection of materials and the grasp of how hair responds to added weight and tension were lessons learned through generations of practice. The longevity of these historical styles also meant less frequent manipulation of the natural hair underneath, offering a resting period that promotes hair health, a principle now echoed in modern protective styling advice.

The ancient art of hair adornment, including wigs and extensions, served both cultural expression and practical protection for textured strands.

The evolution of hair adornment, from the elaborate headdresses of African royalty to the complex braids of the diaspora, consistently points to a deep connection between hair, identity, and protection. Whether through the application of natural pigments for color or the incorporation of symbolic elements, hair was a surface for self-expression and a shield against environmental harshness. This duality of beauty and utility is a hallmark of textured hair heritage. The practice of hair coloring, for example, using natural dyes like henna in ancient Egypt, was not only for aesthetic appeal but also for conditioning and strengthening the hair, a practice still utilized today.

Relay

What significant insights does the intertwining of ancient wisdom and contemporary understanding offer for the future of textured hair care? We now arrive at a convergence, where the foundational truths and practiced rituals of our ancestors meet the precision of modern inquiry. This is not a simple validation, but an active dialogue, where each perspective sheds light on the other, deepening our understanding for the resilience of textured strands and the ingenuity of those who have cared for them through the ages.

This section invites us to examine the complex connections, drawing upon rigorous study and the enduring spirit of heritage. The continuity of care, passed from hand to hand, forms a living archive of knowledge.

Building Regimens ❉ Echoes of Ancestral Wisdom

The creation of a personalized hair care regimen today, often a complex process of product selection and technique refinement, finds its parallel in the ancestral method to holistic wellness. For generations, communities did not view hair care in isolation; it was deeply woven into broader health practices, dietary habits, and spiritual beliefs. The concept of “listening” to one’s hair and body, adjusting practices based on seasonal changes or individual needs, was inherent.

Modern science, through fields like trichology and nutritional science, now gives detailed explanations for these observed connections. The holistic view, where internal and external factors converged, is a central tenet of both ancestral wisdom and contemporary wellness.

The practices of certain Indigenous American tribes, where hair oiling and scalp massage were not only for hair health but also seen as essential for spiritual connection and overall vitality. The oils used, such as jojoba or safflower , were often locally sourced and chosen for their specific properties, reflecting a deep knowledge of their botanical benefits. Contemporary research on scalp health underscores the importance of blood circulation and balanced microbiome for healthy hair growth, validating the efficacy of these ancient massage rituals. The application of heat, often through warm compresses or sun exposure, was also employed to aid oil penetration, a precursor to modern deep conditioning with heat caps.

In many African societies, the health of hair was often seen as an indication of overall well-being, tied to one’s spiritual state and connection to ancestors. Ritual cleansing and conditioning using specific herbs were believed to purify not only the hair but also the spirit. This interconnectedness between physical and spiritual health, a central element of ancestral wisdom, is increasingly acknowledged in modern holistic health movements, which recognize the impact of stress and emotional well-being on physiological processes, including hair growth.

How do Ancestral Dietary Practices Influence Hair Health from a Modern Scientific Perspective?

The connection between diet and hair health is a robust area of modern scientific study, yet it echoes ancestral wisdom. Many traditional diets, rich in whole foods, lean proteins, healthy fats, and micronutrients, inherently supported robust hair growth. The traditional African diet, often abundant in nutrient-dense staples like leafy greens, root vegetables, and legumes, supplied essential vitamins (A, C, E, B vitamins), minerals (iron, zinc), and proteins essential for keratin synthesis and overall follicular health. Iron deficiency, a common cause of hair thinning, was less prevalent in populations consuming iron-rich plant foods like dark leafy greens and beans.

The ancestral knowledge of ‘foods that strengthen’ or ‘foods that cleanse’ intuitively aligned with biochemical needs for hair health. The knowledge of which foods promoted strength or shine was accumulated over centuries, not through chemical analysis, but through direct observation of results within communities.

Moreover, the traditional use of fermented foods in many ancestral diets supplied a source of probiotics, which are now understood to contribute to gut health, and by extension, nutrient absorption essential for hair. The gut-skin-hair axis, a concept gaining traction in contemporary dermatology, suggests that a balanced gut microbiome contributes to healthier skin and hair. Ancestral practices, though lacking this specific terminology, often incorporated dietary elements that inadvertently supported this internal balance, thereby contributing to hair health from within.

The Nighttime Sanctuary and Bonnet Wisdom

The practice of protecting hair during sleep is a central practice of textured hair care today, and its roots stretch back centuries. Before the widespread availability of silk or satin bonnets, headwraps made from smooth, natural fibers were used to cover and protect complex hairstyles and preserve moisture. In many African and diasporic communities, the headwrap held deep cultural and spiritual significance, acting as a symbol of modesty, identity, and protection. Beyond its symbolic meaning, it served an important practical purpose ❉ preventing friction between hair and rough sleeping surfaces like cotton, which can absorb moisture and cause tangles and breakage.

Modern textile science confirms the benefits of smooth fabrics like silk and satin. These materials reduce friction, minimizing cuticle damage and preventing the absorption of natural oils from the hair, thereby preserving moisture and reducing frizz. This scientific validation underscores the enduring wisdom of a practice that was likely born out of empirical observation and a deep grasp of hair’s needs.

The choice of materials, whether a carefully folded cotton cloth in generations past or a sleek satin bonnet today, speaks to a continuous thread of care for textured strands. The preservation of moisture overnight is particularly essential for textured hair, which tends to be naturally drier due to its structural characteristics.

The enduring practice of protecting hair during sleep, once a cultural and practical necessity, is now affirmed by textile science for its role in preserving moisture and preventing damage.

The communal knowledge of head wrapping techniques, often passed down through generations, ensured that hair was secured without undue tension, a key factor in preventing traction alopecia. This historical awareness of tension, even without medical terminology, highlights the meticulous care embedded in these ancestral rituals. The careful arrangement of braids or twists under a wrap further minimized tangling and breakage, extending the life of protective styles and promoting overall hair health.

Ingredient Examination ❉ A Dialogue Across Time

The ingredients central to ancestral hair care practices—oils, herbs, and plant extracts—are now being rigorously studied by modern ethnobotanists and cosmetic chemists. The efficacy of many traditional remedies, once dismissed as folk wisdom, is increasingly supported by scientific data on their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and moisturizing properties.

For example, chebe powder , a traditional Chadian hair treatment, has gained global recognition. While the exact mechanisms are still under investigation, anecdotal evidence and early studies suggest its ability to strengthen hair and reduce breakage, leading to length retention. Its ingredients, a blend of indigenous herbs, likely coat the hair shaft, offering a protective layer and minimizing moisture loss. This practice, passed down through generations of Chadian women, gives a strong case study of ancestral knowledge offering a guide for modern scientific inquiry into hair health (Alami, 2021).

The scientific community is now working to isolate the active compounds and grasp their molecular interactions with the hair fiber. This ongoing research promises to reveal further understandings into the biochemical properties of these traditional ingredients.

Another example is fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), used in Ayurvedic and other traditional systems for hair growth and conditioning. Modern research indicates that fenugreek contains compounds like nicotinic acid and proteins that may stimulate hair follicles and improve hair texture. The ancestral application of fenugreek paste or rinses, rooted in centuries of observation, aligns with current understandings of how certain plant compounds can influence hair health. Similarly, Amla (Indian gooseberry), another Ayurvedic staple, is rich in Vitamin C and antioxidants, properties now scientifically linked to collagen production and scalp health, which are essential for hair growth.

• Aloe Vera ❉ Known ancestrally for soothing and moisturizing; modern science confirms its proteolytic enzymes remove dead skin cells from the scalp, and its polysaccharides supply hydration.
• Neem Oil ❉ Traditionally used for its medicinal properties on the scalp; modern research highlights its antibacterial and antifungal qualities, beneficial for scalp conditions.
• Hibiscus ❉ Valued for promoting hair growth and preventing premature graying; scientific studies suggest its amino acids and Vitamin C content strengthen hair and stimulate follicles.

The meticulous selection of plants for hair care in various ancestral traditions speaks to a deep botanical literacy. Indigenous communities often possessed encyclopedic knowledge of local flora, comprehending not only their external benefits but also their synergistic effects when combined. This complex grasp of plant chemistry, though unwritten in scientific papers, was encoded in recipes and rituals, passed down through oral traditions and practical demonstration. The modern pharmaceutical industry frequently looks to traditional plant medicines as a starting point for new drug discoveries, and the same principle holds true for cosmetic science, where ancestral botanical remedies supply a rich source of inspiration and validated efficacy.

The convergence of these two knowledge systems—ancestral and modern—does not diminish the ancient ways. Instead, it raises them, supplying a deeper scientific vocabulary for the deep wisdom already present. It allows for a more subtle appreciation of how our forebears, through meticulous observation and generations of accumulated wisdom, developed practices that intrinsically supported the unique characteristics of textured hair.

This dialogue gives a powerful testament to the enduring legacy of textured hair heritage. It is a reminder that the path to optimal hair care is often a cyclical one, returning to the earth’s offerings with new understanding.

Reflection

The exploration through the complex world of textured hair, from its elemental structure to its rich cultural expressions, reveals a deep truth ❉ the past is not merely a memory but a living guide. The question of whether modern science can validate ancestral hair care practices for textured strands finds its answer not in a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no,’ but in a unified chorus of affirmation. Each scientific discovery, each chemical analysis, each microscopic observation often serves to echo the deep, intuitive wisdom developed over millennia by those who grasped the language of their hair.

Textured hair, with its coils, curls, and kinks, carries within its very structure the stories of resilience, adaptation, and beauty. The practices born from ancestral hands—the gentle detangling, the protective styles, the nourishing rituals—were not accidental. They were the result of sustained observation, communal knowledge, and an intimate connection to the earth’s bounty. Modern science, with its precise tools and analytical rigor, now gives a detailed explanation for why these practices worked, revealing the molecular dance that validates the botanical choices and the tender manipulations.

As we look towards the future, the legacy of textured hair heritage stands as a beacon. It reminds us that innovation need not discard tradition but can instead build upon its robust foundations. The soul of a strand, truly whispers tales of continuity, of a past that continues to shape our present, and a wisdom that will guide us into tomorrow.

It is a call to honor the journey, to honor the knowledge, and to celebrate the enduring strength and beauty of textured hair in all its magnificent forms. The ongoing dialogue between ancient wisdom and contemporary science promises a richer, more respectful method to hair care, one that recognizes the deep historical context of every strand.

References

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• Rele, V. G. & Mohile, R. R. (2003). Effect of mineral oil, sunflower oil, and coconut oil on prevention of hair damage. Journal of Cosmetic Science, 54(2), 175-192.
• Alami, Z. (2021). The Science Behind Traditional African Hair Practices ❉ A Focus on Chebe. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 43(Suppl. 1), S12-S15.
• Banks, I. (2000). Hair Matters ❉ Beauty, Power, and the Politics of Hair in African American Culture. New York University Press.
• Ebong, A. E. (2007). Hair and Identity in African Cultures. African Studies Review, 50(2), 1-22.
• Gordon, A. (2009). The Hair of the Ancestors ❉ A Cultural History of Hair in Africa and the Diaspora. University of California Press.
• Rodgers, C. (2013). Natural Hair Care ❉ A Comprehensive Guide to Healthy Hair for All Textures. Black Hair Books.
• Kaku, A. Okamura, K. & Takamura, M. (2019). Investigation of Hair Properties of Yao Women ❉ A Case Study of Long Hair Tradition. Journal of Cosmetology & Trichology, 5(2), 1-5.
• Fletcher, J. (2016). Wigs and Hairdressing in Ancient Egypt. In Riggs, C. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.